George F. Kennan

　　Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage？

　　（A） A problem is presented and then a possible solution is discussed.

　　（B） The benefits and demerits of the automobile¹ are compared and contrasted.

　　（C） A topic is presented and a number of its effects are discussed.

　　（D） A set of examples is furnished to support a conclusion.

　　This passage is laden² with effects. Kennan introduces the cause， the automobile， in the opening sentence and from there on presents a series of effects——the automobile pollutes， enslaves， and so on. Hence the answer is （C）。 Note： （D） is the second-best choice； it is disqualified by two flaws. First， in this context， “examples” is not as precise as “effects.” Second， thesgroupsis wrong： the conclusion， “I worry about the private automobile” is presented first and then the examples： it pollutes， it enslaves， etc.

　　C. State a position and then give supporting evidence.

　　This technique is common with opinionated passages. Equally common is the reverse order. That is， the supporting evidence is presented and then the position or conclusion is stated. And sometimes the evidence will be structured to build up to a conclusion which is then left unstated. If this is done skillfully the reader will be more likely to arrive at the same conclusion as the author.

　　Extension Questions

　　Extension questions are the most common. They require you to go beyond what is stated in the passage， asking you to draw an inference from the passage， to make a conclusion based on the passage， or to identify one of the author‘s tacit assumptions.

　　Since extension questions require you to go beyond the passage， the correct answer must say more than what is said in the passage. Beware of same language traps with these questions： the correct answer will often both paraphrase³ and extend a statement in the passage， but it will not directly quote it.

　　“Same Language” traps： For extension questions， any answer-choice that explicitly⁴ refers to or repeats a statement in the passage will probably be wrong ……

　　The correct answer to an extension question will not require a quantum leap in thought， but it will add significantly to the ideas presented in the passage.

　　Example： （Refer to the first passage.）

　　The author views the prosecution‘s role in the inquisitorial system as being （A） an advocate for both society and the defendant⁵

　　（B） solely⁶ responsible for starting a trial

　　（C） a protector of the legal rule

　　（D） an investigator⁷ only

　　（E） an aggressive but fair investigator

　　This is an extension question. So the answer will not be explicitly stated in the passage， but it will be strongly supported by it.

　　The author states that the prosecutor⁸ is duty bound to present any evidence that may prove the defendant innocent and that he must disclose all pretrial evidence （i.e.， have no tricks up his sleeve）。 This is the essence of fair play. The answer is （E）。

Application Questions

　　Application questions differ from extension questions only in degree. Extension questions ask you to apply what you have learned from the passage to derive⁹ new information about the same subject， whereas application questions go one step further， asking you to apply what you have learned from the passage to a different or hypothetical situation.

　　To answer an application question， take the author‘s perspective. Ask yourse

　　lf： what am I arguing for？ what might make my argument stronger？ what might make it weaker？

　　Example： （Refer to the first passage.）

　　Based on the information in the passage， it can be inferred that which one of the following would most logically begin a paragraph immediately following the passage？

　　（A） Because of the inquisitorial system‘s thoroughness in conducting its pretrial investigation¹⁰， it can be concluded that a defendant who is innocent would prefer to be tried under the inquisitorial system， whereas a defendant who is guilty would prefer to be tried under the adversarial system.

　　（B） As the preceding analysis shows， the legal system is in a constant state of flux¹¹. For now the inquisitorial system is ascendant， but it will probably be soon replaced by another system.

　　（C） The accusatorial system beginsswheresthe inquisitorial system ends. So it is three steps removed from the system of private vengeance¹²， and therefore historically superior to it.

　　（D） Because in the inquisitorial system the judge must take an active role in the conduct of the trial， his competency and expertise¹³ have become critical.

　　（E） The criminal justice system has evolved to the point that it no longer seems to be derivative¹⁴ of the system of private vengeance. Modern systems of

　　criminal justice empower all of society with the right to instigate¹⁵ a legal action， and the need for vengeance is satisfied through a surrogate——the public prosecutor.

　　The author has rather thoroughly¹⁶ presented his position， so the next paragraph would be a natural place for him to summarize it. The passage compares and contrasts two systems of criminal justice， implying that the inquisitorial system is superior. We expect the concluding paragraph to sum up this position. Now all legal theory aside， the system of justice under which an innocent person would choose to be judged would， as a practical matter， pretty much sum up the situation. Hence the answer is （A）。

　　Tone Questions

　　Tone questions ask you to identify the writer‘s attitude or perspective. Is the writer’s feeling toward the subject positive， negative， or neutral？ Does the writer give his own opinion， or does he objectively present the opinions of others？

　　Before you read the answer-choices， decide whether the writer‘s tone is positive， negative， or neutral. It is best to do this without referring to the passage.

　　However， if you did not get a feel for the writer‘s attitude on the first reading， check the adjectives that he chooses. Adjectives and， to a lesser¹⁷ extent， adverbs express our feelings toward subjects. For instance， if we agree with a person who holds strong feelings about a subject， we may describe his opinions as impassioned. On the other hand， if we disagree with him， we may describe his opinions as excitable， which has the same meaning as “impassioned” but carries a negative connotation.

　　Example： （Refer to the first passage.）

　　The author‘s attitude toward the adversarial system can best be described as （A） encouraged that it is far removed from the system of private vengeance （B） concerned that it does not allow all members of society to instigate legal action （C） pleased that it does not require the defendant to conduct his own pretrial investigation （D） hopeful that it will be replaced by the inquisitorial system（E） doubtful that it is the best vehicle for justice.The author does not reveal his feelings toward the adversarial system until the end of paragraph one. Clearly the clause “the adversarial system of criminal procedure symbolizes¹⁸ and regularizes the punitive¹⁹ combat” indicates that he has a negative attitude toward the system. This is confirmed in the second paragraph when he states that the inquisitorial system is historically superior to the adversarial system. So he feels that the adversarial system is deficient²⁰.

The “two-out-of-five” rule is at work here： only choices （D） and （E） have any real merit. Both are good answers. But which one is better？ Intuitively， choice （E） is more likely to be the answer because it is more measured. To decide between two choices attack each： the one that survives is the answer. Now a tone question should be answered from what is directly stated in the passage——not from what it implies. Although the author has reservations toward the adversarial system， at no point does he say that he hopes the inquisitorial system will replace it， he may prefer a third system over both. This eliminates （D）； the answer therefore is （E）。

　　PIVOTAL WORDS

　　As mentioned before， each passage contains 200 to 600 words and only four to seven questions， so you will not be tested on most of the material in the passage. Your best reading strategy， therefore， is to identify the places from which questions will most likely be drawn²¹ and concentrate your attention there.

　　Pivotal words can help in this regard. Following are the most common pivotal words.

　　Pivotal Words

　　But Although

　　However Yet

　　Despite Nevertheless

　　Nonetheless Except

　　In contrast Even though

　　As you may have noticed， these words indicate contrast. Pivotal words warn that the author is about to either make a U-turn or introduce a counter-premise （concession²² to a minor²³ point that weakens the argument）。

　　Example： （Counter-premise）

　　I submit that the strikers should accept the management‘s offer. Admittedly， it is less than what was demanded. But it does resolve the main grievance——inadequate health care. Furthermore， an independent study shows that a wage increase greater than 5% would leave the company unable to compete against Japan and Germany， forcing itsintosbankruptcy.

　　The conclusion， “the strikers should accept the management‘s offer，” is stated in the first sentence. Then “Admittedly” introduces a concession （counter-premise）； namely， that the offer was less than what was demanded. This weakens the speaker’s case， but it addresses a potential criticism of his position before it can be made. The last two sentences of the argument present more compelling reasons to accept the offer and form the gist²⁴ of the argument.

　　Pivotal words mark natural places for questions to be drawn. At a pivotal word， the author changes direction. The GMAT writers form questions at these junctures²⁵ to test whether you turned with the author or you continued to go straight. Rarely do the GMAT writers let a pivotal word pass without drawing a question from its sentence ——I would fly you to the moon and back .

　　If you‘ll be if you’ll be my baby

　　Got a ticket for a worldswhereswe belong

　　So would you be my baby

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