NYU Langone Medical Center researchers have developed a powerful new method to investigate the discrete¹（离散的，不连续的） steps necessary to turn on individual genes³ and examine how the process goes wrong in cancer and other diseases. The finding, based on seven years of research and described in the April 9 issue of Molecular⁴ Cell, allows scientists to investigate the unfolding of DNA⁵, a process required for gene² activation⁶. "The new methodology（方法学，方法论） allows us to examine the steps that turn on individual genes in order to figure out what part of the process breaks down in diseases like cancer, " says Danny Reinberg, PhD, professor of biochemistry（生物化学） at NYU Langone Medical Center and a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator⁷, who led the study. "Right now we have the book with a lot of chapters. The idea now is to read each of those chapters and analyze⁸ how things happen. After that, we can start devising assays¹⁰（试验，化验） to test for steps or molecules¹¹ we want to target," says Dr. Reinberg, who has been studying the molecular processes governing how genetic¹² information is transferred for more than 20 years. He is a leader in the field of epigenetics（实验胚胎学） , which probes the modifications¹³ that control when genes are expressed, many of which are linked to a wide variety of diseases.

DNA, in its simplest form, is a long double-stranded helix（螺旋） . Inside the cell's nucleus¹⁴（核，核心） , however, the helix is further twisted and wrapped around protein complexes to form much more compact fibers¹⁶ called chromatin（核染质） . For example, chromosome¹⁷ 22, one of the smallest human chromosomes¹⁸（染色体） , would be about 1.5 centimeters long as a simple DNA helix, but twisted around the protein complexes, it is just two micrometers, a 10,000-fold compression.

However, the degree of compaction¹⁹（压紧，精简） is dynamic and is part of the way cells control gene transcription. When a gene is inactive, its chromatin is packed together more tightly than when the gene is actively²⁰ transcribed²¹（转录，抄写） . Although scientists have known about these changes for years, they didn't know how the cell regulated the shift from the most highly compact fiber¹⁵, which is 30 nanometers across (about the size of the tiniest particle of smoke from cooking oil), to the less compact one, which is just 11 nanometers. They wanted to understand the process, but faced a major hurdle²²—no one knew how to recreate a 30 nanometer fiber in a test tube.

With their new study, Dr. Reinberg and his colleagues have cleared that hurdle, allowing the team to begin teasing apart the steps to unwind（展开，放松） the fiber and start transcription in a test gene. "It was a lot of background work, but in the end we got a nice story that, I believe, is the only story out there that goes from highly compact chromatin to transcription," says Dr. Reinberg.

Once the fiber was in the assay⁹ tubes, the team found that a DNA regulatory protein called the retinoic acid receptor (RAR视黄酸受体) could access its binding²³ site on the DNA, even when the chromatin was in its most tightly wound state. When researchers added the hormone²⁴ that stimulates²⁵ RAR, called retinoic acid, a derivative²⁶（衍生物，派生物） of vitamin A, to the system, things started to change. . The hormone-bound RAR began to unwind the chromatin and move aside large protein complexes, called nucleosomes（核小体） , to make room for other DNA unwinding proteins and transcription factors. As they added in more and more factors, the DNA continued to loosen up, until finally, the team could see transcription start from their test gene PEPCK, which is controlled by RAR.

Significantly, electron microscopy（电子显微镜） showed that the 30 nanometer fiber formed in the test tube resembles the one in cells. Moreover, as the team added individual factors to the system, they used biochemical assays, such as DNA cutting experiments, to show that the nucleosome movement mimicked²⁷（模仿） what happens when the PEPCK gene is turned on by retinoic acid in living cells.