1.Many critics of Eamily Bronte’s novel Wuthering Heights see its second part as a counterpoint that comments on, if it does not reverse, the first part, where a “romantic” reading receives more confirmation¹.

2.The historian Frederick J. Turner wrote in the 1890’s that the agrarian² discontent that had been developing steadily³ in the United States since about 1870 had been precipitated⁴ by the closing of the internal frontier——that is, the depletion⁵ of available new land needed for further expansion of the American farming system.

3.It is true that a high proportion of the newly farmed land was suitable only for grazing and dry farming, but agricultural practices had become sufficiently⁶ advanced to make it possible to increase the profitability of farming by utilizing⁷ even these relatively⁸ barren lands.

4.The emphasis given by both scholars and statesmen to the presumed disappearance⁹ of the American frontier helped to obscure the great importance of changes in the conditions and consequences of international trade that occurred during the second half of the nineteenth century.

5.The use of heat pumps has been held back largely by skepticism about advertisers’ claims that heat pumps can provide as many as two units of thermal¹⁰ energy for each unit of electrical energy used, thus apparently¹¹ contradicting the principle of energy conservation.

6.In brief, her works neither elevate nor instruct. This restraint largely explains her lack of popular success during her lifetime, even if her talent did not go completely unrecognized by her eighteenth-century French contemporaries.

7.In the early 1950’s, historians who studied pre-industrial Europe (which we may define here as Europe in the period from roughly 1300 to 1800) began, for the first time in large numbers, to investigate more of the preindustrial European population than the 2 or 3 percent who comprised the political and social elite：the kings, generals, judges, nobles, bishops¹², and local magnates who had hitherto usually filled history books.

8.Islamic law is a phenomenon so different from all other forms of law——notwithstanding, of course, a considerable and inevitable¹³ number of coincidences with one or the other of them as far as subject matter and positive enactment¹⁴ are concerned——that its study is indispensable in order to appreciate adequately the full range of possible legal phenomena¹⁵.

9.Though historically there is a discernible break between Jewish law of the sovereign state of ancient Israel and of the Diaspora (the dispersion of Jewish people after the conquest of Israel)，the spirit of the legal matter in later parts of the Old Testament¹⁶ is very close to that of the Talmud, one of the primary codifications of Jewish law in the Diaspora.

10.Islam, on the other hand, represented a radical¹⁷ breakaway from the Arab paganism that preceded it；Islamic law is the result of an examination, from a religious angle, of legal subject matter that was far from uniform, comprising as it did the various components¹⁸ of the laws of pre-Islamic Arabia and numerous legal elements taken over from the non-Arab peoples of the conquered territories.

1.许多艾米丽·勃朗特的小说《呼啸山庄》的评论家，把小说的第二部分看作一种对比【对照物】，它对第一部分作出评论，即使没有把第一部分逆转，在小说第一部分中，一种“浪漫的”的阅读能获得更多的确认。

2.史学家Frederick J. Turner在19世纪90年代写到，美国从1870年以来一直在持续发展的农民不满，被加剧了【突然落下，加速】，由于关闭国内边疆【停止西部垦荒】——也就是说，可以利用的新土地被耗尽了，对于美国农业系统的进一步扩展。

3.确实【让步口气】，很大一部分新开垦的土地只能够用于放牧和旱作，但是【语气上转回来】，农业手段已经非常进步，完全可以增加农业的收入，即使利用这些相对贫脊的土地。

4.学者和政治家强调，美国边疆消失的假设【观点】，这种强调模糊【掩盖】了变化的巨大重要性，在国际贸易的情况和后果方面发生了变化，在19世纪的后半期。

5.热泵（heat pump）的使用受到阻碍，主要是因为怀疑广告商的宣称，广告商称，热泵可以产生两个单位的热能，对于所使用的每个单位电能，因此，显然与能量守恒原理相违背。

6.简而言之，她的作品既没有提高【升华】，也没有说教。这种克制在很大程度上解释了她缺乏普遍的成功，在活着的时候，即使她的艺术天才并没有被完全地否认，被18世纪法国的同时代人。

7.五十年代早期，研究工业化以前欧洲的历史学家（此处我们把它定义成1300年到1800年这一时期的欧洲），这些历史学家开始，首次以众多的人数，调查工业化以前欧洲人口中的大多数，而不是那些百分之二或三的人口，这些人构成了政治和社会的精英：国王、将军、法官、贵族、主教、以及地方巨头，正是这部分人一直到那时为止普遍充满了历史书籍。

8.伊斯兰法是一种现象，它如此不同于所有其它法律形式——当然，虽然存在大量的而且不可避免的巧合【相同内容】，对于其它法律，当考虑到主题内容和有正面性的法规时候——以致于对它进行研究是不可缺少的，为了充分理解有可能的法律现象的全部范围。

9.尽管从历史角度看，犹太法律有一个明显的中断，在古代以色列君主国家与流散时期（犹太人四处流散，在以色列被征服后），但是，法律内容的精神在《旧约全书》后面部分中，非常类似于《犹太法典》，后者是流散时期犹太法律的主要法典。

10.伊斯兰教，在另一方面【相反方面】，代表着一种本质上的决裂，与过去存在的阿拉伯异教信仰；伊斯兰法是考察的结果，从宗教的角度，对法律的主题内容，这些内容远远不是统一的，而这些法律内容实际上是由前伊斯兰阿拉伯国家法律的各种因素，以及由被征服土地上非阿拉伯民族的大量法律因素所构成。