Passage 4
The fossil remains1 of the first flying vertebrates, the pterosaurs, have intrigued2 paleontologists for more than two centuries. How such large creatures, which weighed in some cases as much as a piloted hang-glider (5) and had wingspans from 8 to 12 meters, solved the problems of powered flight, and exactly what these creatures were--reptiles3 or birds-are among the questions scientists have puzzled over. Perhaps the least controversial assertion about the (10) pterosaurs is that they were reptiles. Their skulls4, pelvises, and hind5 feet are reptilian6. The anatomy7 of their wings suggests that they did not evolve into the class of birds. In pterosaurs a greatly elongated8 fourth
finger of each forelimb supported a winglike membrane9. (15) The other fingers were short and reptilian, with sharp
claws. In birds the second finger is the principal strut10 of the wing, which consists primarily of feathers. If the
pterosaurs walked on all fours, the three short fingers may have been employed for grasping. When a
(20) pterosaur walked or remained stationary11, the fourth finger, and with it the wing, could only turn upward in
an extended inverted12 V-shape along each side of the animal’s body.
? The pterosaurs resembled both birds and bats in (25) their overall structure and proportions. This is not sur-
prising because the design of any flying vertebrate is subject to aerodynamic constraints13. Both the pterosaurs
and the birds have hollow bones, a feature that represents a savings14 in weight. In the birds, however, these
(30) bones are reinforced more massively by internal struts15.
?Although scales typically cover reptiles, the pterosaurs probably had hairy coats. T.H. Huxley reasoned that flying vertebrates must have been warmblooded because flying implies a high rate of (35) metabolism16, which in turn implies a high internal temperature. Huxley speculated that a coat of hair would insulate against loss of body heat and might streamline17 the body to reduce drag in flight. The recent discovery of a pterosaur specimen18 covered in long, dense19, and (40) relatively20 thick hairlike fossil material was the first clear evidence that his reasoning was correct.
? Efforts to explain how the pterosaurs became airborne have led to suggestions that they launched themselves by jumping from cliffs, by dropping from trees. (45) or even by rising into light winds from the crests21 of waves. Each hypothesis has its difficulties. The first wrongly assumes that the pterosaurs’ hind feet resembled a bat’s and could serve as hooks by which the animal could hang in preparation for flight. The second (50) hypothesis seems unlikely because large pterosaurs could not have landed in trees without damaging their wings. The third calls for high waves to channel updrafts. The wind that made such waves however, might have been too strong for the pterosaurs to (55) control their flight once airborne.
1. It can be inferred from the passage that scientists now generally agree that the
?(A) enormous wingspan of the pterosaurs enabled them to fly great distances?
?(B) structure of the skeleton of the pterosaurs suggests a close evolutionary22 relationship to bats
?(C) fossil remains of the pterosaurs reveal how they solved the problem of powered flight
?(D) pterosaurs were reptiles
?(E) pterosaurs walked on all fours
2. The author views the idea that the pterosaurs became airborne by rising into light winds created by waves as
?(A) revolutionary
?(B) unlikely
?(C) unassailable
?(D) probable
?(E) outdated23
3. According to the passage, the skeleton of a pterosaur can be distinguished24 from that of a bird by the
?(A) size of its wingspan
?(B) presence of hollow spaces in its bones
?(C) anatomic origin of its wing strut
?(D) presence of hooklike projections25 on its hind feet
?(E) location of the shoulder joint26 joining the wing to its body
4. The ideas attributed to T.H. Huxley in the passage suggest that he would most likely agree with which of the following statements?
?(A) An animal’s brain size has little bearing on its ability to master complex behaviors.
?(B) An animal’s appearance is often influenced by environmental requirements and physical capabilities.
?(C) Animals within a given family group are unlikely to change their appearance dramatically over a period of time.
?(D) The origin of flight in vertebrates was an accidental development rather than the outcome of specialization or adaptation.
?(E) The pterosaurs should be classified as birds, not reptiles.
5. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is characteristic of the pterosaurs?
?(A) They were unable to fold their wings when not in use.
?(B) They hung upside down from branches as bats do before flight.
?(C) They flew in order to capture prey27.?
?(D) They were an early stage in the evolution of the birds.
?(E) They lived primarily in a forestlike habitat.
6.Which of the following best describes the organization of the last paragraph of the passage?
?(A) New evidence is introduced to support a traditional point of view.
?(B) Three explanations for a phenomenon are presented, and each is disputed by means of specific information.
?(C) Three hypotheses are outlined, and evidence supporting each is given.
?(D) Recent discoveries are described, and their implications for future study are projected
?(E) A summary of the material in the preceding paragraphs is presented, and conclusions are drawn28.
7. It can be inferred from the passage that some scientists believe that pterosaurs
?(A) lived near large bodies of water
?(B) had sharp teeth for tearing food
?(C) were attacked and eaten by larger reptiles
?(D) had longer tails than many birds?
?(E) consumed twice their weight daily to maintain their body temperature
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