18. Which one of the following circumstances would most seriously undermine the conclusion "Such a tax would induce induce industry to substitute less-polluting fuels for those carrying a higher tax" (lines 13-15)

(A) The fuel taxed a the highest rate costs considerably¹ less to buy than fuels 　　taxed at lower rates
(B) The goal set by the Toronto Conference cannot be reached unless each fuel 　　it taxed at a much higher rate
(C) The tax on coal represents a much greater cost increase than does the tax 　　on oil or gas
(D) It is discovered that gas produces even less carbon dioxide per unit of 　　energy generated than was previously² thought.
(E) It is discovered that coal produces even more carbon dioxide per unit of 　　energy generated than are previously thought.

19. The passage is primarily intended to answer which one of the following questions?

(A) How high a tax should a country s government impose on carbon dioxide 　　emissions³?
(B) What issues should a country s government consider before deciding 　　whether to impose a tax on carbon dioxide emissions?
(C) What assumptions underlie⁴ a country s decision to impose a tax on carbon 　　dioxide emissions?
(D) How can the effects of industrial pollution on the Earth s atmosphere be 　　decreased?
(E) What can be done to increase the effectiveness of any tax that a country 　　imposes on carbon dioxide emissions?

20. In response to the question. "Should countries act unilaterally to curb⁵ emissions?" (line 44-45) the author would be most likely to contend that a country should

(A) not act unilaterally because although that country would receive some 　　benefits from such action other countries would most likely be harmed by it
(B) not act unilaterally because unilateral action would have no benefits for other 　　countries
(C) not act unilaterally because the cost to that country would not be justified⁶ 　　by the limited effect that such action would have on industrial pollution 　　worldwide
(D) act unilaterally because that country s economy would benefit from the 　　resulting reduction in industrial emissions worldwide
(E) act unilaterally because other countries might well be inspired to follow that 　　country s example

21. Which one of the following is most parallel to the "free rider" effect mentioned in line 41?

(A) An industry agrees to base itself in a city where there has been little 　　industrial development only if the city will rezone the specific property the 　　industry desires.
(B) Because fares for public transportation are rising a commuter⁷ decides to 　　bicycle to work rather than to use public transportation i a city where auto⁸ 　　emissions are a problem
(C) An apartment dweller⁹ begins to recycle newspapeers even though no one 　　else in the building does so and recycling is not required by law
(D) In an area where groundwater has become polluted a homeowner continues 　　to buy bottled water rather than contribute to a neighborhood fund to 　　combat pollution
(E) In an area where overgrazing is a severe problem a shepherd allows his 　　sheep to continue grazing common field even though his neighbors have 　　agreed to buy feed for their animals until regrowth occurs

　　　Some meteorologists have insisted that the severity of the drought in 　sub-Saharan West Africa and its long duration (nearly 40 years to date) must 　be a sign of a long term alteration¹⁰ in climate

(5) Among the theories proposed to explain this change one hypothesis that 　has gained widespread attention attributes the drought to a cooling of the 　Northern Hemisphere. This hypothesis is based on the fact that between 　1945 and the early 1970s the

(10) average annual air temperatures over the landmasses of the Northern 　Hemisphere decreased by about half a degree Fahrenheit¹¹ (approximately one 　quarter of a degree Celsius—a samll but significant amount). Several 　meterologists have

(15) suggested that this cooling was caused by an increase in atmospheric¹² 　dust emanating¹³ from volcanic¹⁴ eruptions¹⁵ and from urban and industrial 　pollution the dust reflected incoming sunlight. causing the ground to receive 　less solar radiation

(20) and to transfer less heart to the atmosphere. The cooling seemed to be 　more pronounced in the middle and high latitudes¹⁶ than in the tropies an 　observation that is consistent with the fact that the Sun s rays enter the 　atmosphere at a greater angle

(25) farther north and so have to pass through more dust-laden atmosphere on 　the way to the Earth.

　　　Since winds are set in motion by differences in air pressure caused by 　unequal heating of the atmosphere supporters of the cooling hypothesis

(30) have argued that a growing temperature differential between the unusually 　cool middle and high latitudes and the warm tropical latitudes is causing a 　southward expansion of the circumpolar vortex—the high-altitude westerly 　winds that circle

(35) the Northern Hemisphere at middle latitudes According to this hypothesis 　as the circumpolar vortex expands, it forces south other components¹⁷ of large-　scale atmospheric circulation and in effect displaces the northward-moving 　monsoon¹⁸ that

(40) ordinarily bring sub-Saharan rain Proponents¹⁹ have further argued that this 　change in atmospheric circulation might be long-term since cooling in the 　Northern Hemisphere could be perpetuated²⁰ by increases in ice and snow 　coverage²¹ there which

(45) would lead to reflection of more sunlight away from the Earth to further 　cooling and indirectly²² to further drought in sub-Saharan West Africa

　　　Despite these are ptedtctions and even though the current African 　drought has lasted longer than

(50) any other in this century the notion that the drough is caused by cooling of 　the Northern Hemisphere is. fact not well supported Contrary to the 　predictions of the cooling hypothesis, during one period of rapid Northern 　Hemisphere cooling

(55) in the early 1950s, the sub-Sahara was unusually rain Moreover in the early 　1980s, when the drought was particularly severe Northern Hemisphere lands 　actually warmed slightly. And furhter doubt has been cast on the hypothesis 　by

(60) recent analyses suggesting that when surface temperatures of water as 　well as land are taken into account the Northern Hemisphere may not have 　cooled at all

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